Booted and Serpent Eagles - threats and conservation

May 27th, 2008

The table below aims to describe the main threats to serpent and booted eagle species worldwide and to describe current conservation efforts. It is best understood within the context of the table we posted previously (below this table), which detailed numbers and conservation status of these eagles. It is very likely that for some species these data are out of date, incorrect or incomplete. We are seeking help in completing this table. For some species, like golden eagle, the conservation activities that are ongoing are many and we are constrained by space. In the particular case of the golden eagle it is also one of the more common species and has a very large global population. Still, we recognize that national and regional level conservation activities are being pursued and that these efforts are important in maintaining the golden eagle’s current distribution, overall good conservation status and improving its conservation status in some countries. Please take time to look at the table below and use the blog to provide us with information. It is our aim to publish our results in a peer-reviewed journal or e-journal and we will acknowledge those who have contributed to this effort. To contribute to the blog click on the title above. You will find a comment box at the bottom of the page. Use that to submit your comments.

Endangered

Species Common Name Main Threats Conservation Activities
Eutriorchis astur Madagascar Serpent Eagle Deforestation and habitat fragmentation CITES II. The Peregrine Fund, World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF). Project Masoala and Association pour la Gestion des Aires Protégées. Establishment of a rainforest reserve, research, monitoring and education.
Spilornis [c.] perplexus Ryukyu Serpent Eagle Destruction of foraging habitat, collisions with cars Formal legal protection. Planned research, activities to reduce collisions and restoration of wetlands where they hunt. Public education. Genetic research.
Spilornis [c.] baweanus Bawean Serpent Eagle Recreational hunting. Habitat loss to logging and burning. Genetic research.
Pithecophaga jefferyi Philippine Eagle Habitat fragmentation and destruction, persecution. Overhunting of prey CITES I. Legal protection in Philippines. Various Philippine legislation to support education, protection and protection of habitat. Philippine Eagle Foundation. Philippine Eagle Conservation Programme. The Peregrine Fund. Captive breeding, nest site protection, field research, community-based sustainable resource use initiatives, conservation education
Nisaetus (Spizaetus) floris Flores Hawk Eagle Deforestation, persecution, live pet trade ARRCN Spizaetus Collaboration Project. Survey. Genetic research
Nisaetus (Spizaetus) bartelsi Javan Hawk Eagle Deforestation for tea and coffee plantations, illegal hunting, live pet trade, ineffective law enforcement CITES II. ARRCN Javan Hawk Eagle Project.  ARRCN Spizaetus Collaboration Project. Protected as National Bird of Indonesia. Action plan compiled. Public conservation education. Research. Survey. Nest-guarding ?
Nisaetus (Spizaetus) philippensis Philippine Hawk Eagle Massive and continuing deforestation. Illegal hunting and trapping (even in nominal protected areas), ineffective law enforcement Legal protection, including CITES Appendix II and national laws. ARRCN Spizaetus Collaboration Project. Genetic research.
Nisaetus (Spizaetus) pinskeri Pinsker´s Hawk Eagle Massive and continuing deforestation. Illegal hunting and trapping (even in nominal protected areas), ineffective law enforcement ARRCN Spizaetus Collaboration Project. Genetic research.
Aquila (Lophaetus) hastata Indian Spotted Eagle Habitat loss due to drainage of forests and meadows.  Confusion with A. clanga undermines survey and monitoring ARRCN Indian Spotted Eagle Project. Genetic research.

Near Threatened or Vulnerable

Species Common Name Main Threats Conservation Activities
Spilornis elgini Andaman Serpent Eagle Deforestation, potential pressures due to increased human population on island. CITES II.
Spilornis [c] minimus Central Nicobar Serpent Eagle Data deficient. Restricted range. Genetic research.
Spilornis [c] abbotti Simeulue Serpent Eagle Data deficient. Restricted range. Genetic research.
Spilornis [c] asturinus Nias Serpent Eagle Data deficient. Restricted range. Genetic research.
Spilornis [c] sipora Mentawai Serpent Eagle Data deficient. Restricted range. Genetic research.
Spilornis [c] natunensis Natuna Serpent Eagle Data deficient. Restricted range. Genetic research.
Spilornis klossi Great Nicobar Serpent Eagle Data deficient, potential pressures due to increased human population within restricted range CITES II.
Spilornis kinabaluensis Kinabalu Serpent Eagle Deforestation, but poorly known. CITES II.
Terathopius ecaudatus Bateleur Habitat destruction, lack of carrion, nest disturbance, pesticides, inadvertent poisoning CITES II.
Circaetus beaudouini Beaudouin’s Snake Eagle None known. CITES II.
Circaetus fasciolatus Banded Snake Eagle Deforestation and habitat degradation, especially along rivers, human persecution. CITES II.
Nisaetus (Spizaetus) nanus Wallace’s Hawk Eagle Low land forest loss, fragmentation and degradation. Some illegal hunting.  Ineffective law enforcement, including in protected areas. Legal protection, including CITES II. ARRCN Spizaetus Collaboration Project. Some protected areas
Nisaetus (Spizaetus) kelaarti Legge’s Hawk Eagle Deforestation, especially of evergreen forests. Forest fragmentation ARRCN Spizaetus Collaboration Project
Spizaetus (Oroaetus) isidori Black-and-chestnut Eagle Probably deforestation. Appears to occupy narrow altitudinal range. Little known. CITES II.
Polemaetus bellicosus Martial Eagle Persecution. CITES II.
Aquila (Lophaetus) clanga Greater Spotted Eagle Habitat destruction including drainage of wetlands, forestry, and intensification of farming. Abandonment of traditional flood plain management, nest disturbance, nest robbing, shooting, poisoning. Hybridisation with lesser spotted eagle (Aquila pomarina), but as yet it is not clear whether this is a natural phenomenon or a result of an increasing difficulty in finding a mate. Thought to be competing for food with the introduced American mink (Mustela vison) in Belarus. CITES II. Legally protected on national scale. Regionally protected in Europe by the EU Birds Directive and indirectly by Habitats Directive. International Lesser and Greater Spotted Eagle Working Group formed. Research on hybridisation with lesser spotted eagle habitat requirements and site protection measures in Belarus. RSPB/BirdLife research in Belarus. European Action Plan published in 2000.
Aquila heliaca Eastern Imperial Eagle Habitat change (conversion of native forests to commercial forests with introduced species with consequent loss of prey), loss of nest sites (large trees), human disturbance, nest robbing, illegal trade, shooting, poisoning, shortage of prey species, and electrocution, live bird trade. CITES I. Legally protected in most countries in its range. The Eastern Imperial Eagle Working Group established in 1990. European Action Plan (1996). LIFE Project in Hungary.
Aquila gurneyi Gurney’s Eagle Possibly threatened by deforestation. Little known. CITES II. Survey
Aquila adalberti Spanish Imperial Eagle Electrocution and accidental trapping and poisoning. CITES I. Modifying transmission poles, education. Mostly protected on the local or national scale. Regionally protected in Europe by the EU Birds Directive and indirectly by Habitats Directive. Captive breeding.

Least Concern

Species Common Name Main Threats Conservation Activities
Spilornis cheela ssp. Crested Serpent Eagle No immediate threats to population and seen as adaptable, but deforestation and keeping as pets in their range are problems. Taxonomic questions exist and resolution of these may give rise to new species that are imperilled. CITES II. Survey. Genetic work.
Spilornis holospilus Philippine Serpent Eagle Deforestation, but seems adaptable. CITES II. Genetic work.
Spilornis rufipectus Sulawesi Serpent Eagle Deforestation and disturbance, but may be adaptable. Little known. Deforestation seems less of an immediate threat than on other islands in the region. CITES II. Survey. Genetic work
Dryotriorchis spectabilis Congo Serpent Eagle Deforestation CITES II.
Circaetus gallicus Short-toed Snake Eagle Habitat loss due to intensified agriculture, shooting on migration, locally windfarms (mostly in Spain) CITES II. Regionally protected in Europe by the EU Birds Directive and indirectly by Habitats Directive. Mostly conservation efforts on the local or national scale.
Circaetus pectoralis Black-breasted Snake Eagle Data deficient, but occurs in a wide range of habitats. CITES II.
Circaetus cinereus Brown Snake Eagle Data deficient. Perhaps vulnerable to habitat degradation. CITES II.
Circaetus cinerascens Western Banded Snake Eagle Deforestation of riverine forests and habitat degradation. CITES II.
Nisaetus (Spizaetus) lanceolatus Sulawesi Hawk Eagle Deforestation and disturbance. Little known. Deforestation seems less of an immediate threat than on other islands in the region. CITES II. ARRCN Spizaetus Collaboration Project
Nisaetus (Spizaetus) cirrhatus Changeable Hawk Eagle Deforestation, human disturbance, subspecies may be threatened due to small ranges (islands) CITES II. ARRCN Spizaetus Collaboration Project
Nisaetus (Spizaetus) nipalensis Mountain Hawk Eagle Deforestation. CITES II. ARRCN Spizaetus Collaboration Project
Nisaetus (Spizaetus) alboniger Blyth’s Hawk Eagle Deforestation. Loss of big trees in which it nests CITES II. ARRCN Spizaetus Collaboration Project
Spizaetus tyrannus Black Hawk Eagle Deforestation. CITES II.
Spizaetus (Spizastur) melanoleucus Black-and-white Hawk Eagle Deforestation, but appears relatively tolerant of habitat change. Range contracting. CITES II.
Spizaetus ornatus Ornate Hawk Eagle Deforestation. Declining at various localities across range
Stephanoaetus coronatus Crowned Eagle Deforestation, shooting, trapping, nest disturbance. Overhunting of prey. Declining at various localities across range CITES II.
Lophotriorchis (Hieraaetus) kienerii Rufous-bellied Eagle Habitat destruction (deforestation) CITES II. Survey
Aquila (Lophaetus) occipitalis Long-crested Eagle Adaptable, but potentially vulnerable to degradation of woodland and drainage of wetalnd CITES II.
Aquila (Ictinaetus) malayensis Indian Black Eagle Habitat destruction (deforestation) Survey
Aquila (Lophaetus) pomarina Lesser Spotted Eagle Shooting, habitat loss due to drainage of forests and meadows. CITES II. Conservation mostly on the local or national scale. Regionally protected in Europe by the EU Birds Directive and indirectly by Habitats Directive. European Action Plan.
Aquila (Hieraaetus) wahlbergi Wahlberg’s Eagle Some threat from loss of habitat and locally by accidental poisoning. CITES II.
Aquila (Hieraaetus) ayresii Ayres’s Hawk Eagle Locally shooting and habitat destruction. CITES II.
Aquila (Hieraaetus) pennata Booted Eagle Deforestation and loss of low intensity agricultural systems, human disturbance, persecution, locally windfarms CITES II. Regionally protected in Europe by the EU Birds Directive and indirectly by Habitats Directive.
Aquila (Hieraaetus) morphnoides Little Eagle Locally habitat destruction, but seems to be adaptable. CITES II.
Aquila (Hieraaetus) weiskei Pygmy/Weiske’s Eagle
Aquila nipalensis Steppe Eagle Electrocution. Conversion of steepe into agricultural fields, some persecution. CITES II
Aquila rapax Tawny Eagle Accidental and non-accidental poisoning, persecution, shooting. Declines in prey availability. CITES II
Aquila chrysaetos Golden Eagle Habitat loss, declines in prey, locally direct persecution, inadvertent poisoning, human disturbance, electrocution, windfarms. CITES II. Regionally protected in Europe by the EU Birds Directive and indirectly by Habitats Directive. Protected in North America by Migratory Bird Treaties. Many conservation efforts, mostly on the local or national scale.
Aquila verreauxi Verreaux’s Eagle Effects of growing human population including declines in main prey due to overgrazing and hunting. Persecution. Drought. CITES II.
Aquila audax Wedge-tailed Eagle Habitat and nest tree destruction, locally persecution, inadvertent human disturbance, accidental and intentional poisoning, windfarms. Lead poisoning. Threatened with extirpation in Tasmania. CITES II. Nesting habitat and nest sites of Tasmanian race afforded some protection in state forests through Forest Code.
Aquila (Spizaetus) africana Cassin’s Hawk Eagle Apparently relatively adaptable. Deforestation, human disturbance. Poorly known. CITES II.
Aquila (Hieraaetus) fasciata Bonelli’s Eagle Persecution, Habitat loss due to intensified agriculture, Declines in prey, Collision with power lines. Persecution. Locally windfarms. Endangered in its western European distribution. CITES II. Mostly conservation efforts on the local or national scale. Regionally protected in Europe by the EU Birds Directive and indirectly by Habitats Directive.
Aquila (Hieraaetus) spilogaster African Hawk Eagle Habitat change, some shooting and poisoning. CITES II.

17 Responses to “Booted and Serpent Eagles - threats and conservation”

  1. Rick Watson


    May 30th, 2008 at 4:56 pm

    Bateleur: “Inadvertant” poisoning is the most likely, range-wide problem for this species, followed by direct persecution including nest disturbance/destruction. Such poisoning occurs when farmers target feral dogs/jackals and other predators to protect their livestock. This applies equally from South Africa, where poisoning is rather systematic and been going on for decades (and where Endangered Wildlife Trust has been doing farmer education since the mid 1980s , with some signs of success), throughout the species range where poisoning is rather less systematic but equally destructive. Furadan (carbofuran) misuse as a poison in E.Africa and probably elsewhere to poison predators is killing off huge numbers of avian scavengers. Stopping such poisoning would be a good focus for ECA.

  2. Jayson Ibanez


    May 31st, 2008 at 4:43 am

    Dear ECA,

    For Philippine Eagle, kindly add the work being done by the Philippine government through the Protected Areas and Wildlife Bureau (PAWB) of the Department of Environment and NAtural Resources (DENR).

    Through the Philippine Raptor Conservation Program, they have Regional Eagle Watch Teams (REWT) across 10 regions in the country that monitors Philippine Eagles and other raptors. They do intermittent education campaigns in schools and uplands and also rescue, rehabiliate and release injured raptors. My organization, the Philippine Eagle Foundation, is helping out with capacity building for research and monitoring among these government personnel.

    Under threats, I suggest we put “habitat fragmentation and destruction due to logging and slash and burn farming, and recently mining. Accidental trapping in local snares intended for deer and wild pigs. Ineffective law enforcement…”

    The Philippine Eagle Foundation and the Philippine Eagle Conservation Programme are one and the same. You can retain Philippine Eagle Foundation. Also, please add “experimental releases of captive-bred and rehabilitated eagles” as an entry under conservation acitivities.

    As for Pinker’s Hawk Eagle, Nisaetus pinskeri, my organization is attempting conservation breeding for this species. We have one pair laying eggs, but have yet to hatch eggs succesfully.

    I hope these comments are useful

    Sincerely

    Jayson C. Ibanez
    Coordinator
    Field Research Program
    Philippine Eagle Foundation

  3. Ohad Hatzofe


    June 1st, 2008 at 2:36 pm

    To my impression, at least in the Middle East Bonelli’s eagle and to larger extant Golden Eagle, homyeri ,subspecies are way more endangered than “least concern” while the Short-toed Eagle is relatively common.

  4. Administrator


    June 2nd, 2008 at 5:55 pm

    Thanks for these bits of information…

    Rick, Obviously, I can not speak for the ECA, but I agree that inadvertant poisoning would be a good conservation focus for it. It is my view that this would be best done by working with established local conservation groups. I’d support any good strategy that could get something going…shame I missed the lead conference. We could have talked.

    Ohad, Like people in the Middle East, I think the Japanese would take exception to the statement that golden eagles are of least concern (so would people in England!). I will likely address this in the discussion section of the paper that results from all this work. Given that golden eagle in the Middle East was likely always at low densities in much of its range, what % of historical breeding range is still used and what % of historical numbers are estimated to breed?

    I’ll incorporate your comments in a revised table. Thanks!

    Mike

  5. Administrator


    June 2nd, 2008 at 6:30 pm

    Now that I think about it… Are there places where Bonelli’s eagle is doing well?

  6. Ohad Hatzofe


    June 2nd, 2008 at 6:43 pm

    Golden Eagle - in 20 year the population had dropped over 50% especially in the more arid and less accessible sites mainly in the Negev Highlands.
    Bonelli’s Eagles –From 45-50 pairs in the 19940’s, and 29 pair in the late 1970’s to 13-15 territories in the mid 2000’s.
    With Short-toed Eagles we have now concentration of over 100 birds in roosts sites and it seem that there’s also shift in diet for rodents if habitat includs monoculturism.

  7. Todd Katzner


    June 3rd, 2008 at 3:19 am

    Very nice work Mike. A point of consideration. In Kazakhstan one of our greatest concerns for eastern imperial eagle is wintering habitat and mortality during winter or migration. Presumably this also matters for steppe eagle, another medium/long distance migrant. For migratory species it is critical to differentiate between threats on breeding and wintering grounds, as they are often different.

  8. Russell Thorstrom


    June 4th, 2008 at 4:22 pm

    ECA/Mike,

    For the Madagascar Serpent Eagle the threats and activities are correct.

    Thanks, Russell Thorstrom

  9. Administrator


    June 4th, 2008 at 10:43 pm

    Ohad,
    How much do you think that the declines you are seeing are related to edge of range effects? So, one would expect declines on the edge of the range before witnessing them near the centre of the range, and for golden eagles at least sub populations are seen to be imperiled in places like Japan, Mexico and the Middle East. In Japan, even with no pressures they would be limited by geography (in the mountains on an island that is relatively well forested). In the middle east density would a be low because it is arid. In Mexico, the Middle East, Greece (and even Japan) the fact that a larger proportion of the diet is reptilian may be a factor in limiting density (and this is probably related in most cases to overall productivity of habitat (aridity)… When you say 50% decline, what do you mean…how many pairs do you have in Israel now?

    I never have enough brain power to sort this out myself…

    Israel, like Spain, supports Bonelli’s, golden, booted an short-toed eagles. Are the population trends similar between the countries?

    Todd, Point taken about the migrants. The lack of information on winter ecology of migrants (and non-migrants for that matter) undermines alot of our conservation efforts. i would think that studying a species whose wintering and summering ranges were very different in conservation terms might be instructive. What species might qualify? Although no species that I can think of is perfect, perhaps Eastern Imperial Eagle is pretty good. Steppe eagle might be even better because it is more common.

    In assembling these data in the table the fact that I have not seperated migrants from non-migrants has not made comparisons easier. Sorry.

    Thanks, Russell. As you know, I know nothing about MSE. Any chance of some counts of sooty/Eleonora’s falcon in Madagascar this coming winter?

  10. Munir Virani


    June 6th, 2008 at 11:09 am

    Great web site!
    For Martial Eagle, I would add Bird Trade as a threat. A great demand for the species in Europe and other parts of the world has resulted in a large number of birds being captured especially in Tanzania for export. This is done officially under CITES import and export regulations. It needs to be said that for at least 2 or 3 Martial Eagles being exported, at least a dozen or so have been captured and died along the way to the exporter.

  11. Markus Jais


    June 7th, 2008 at 12:24 pm

    @Munir: Does the bird trade also affect African Crowned Eagle?

  12. Administrator


    June 7th, 2008 at 6:01 pm

    Where are martial eagles being exported to? Presumably the clients are either legitimate or know that they can get CITES permits easily to legitimize the operation. Of course it goes without sayiing that there are some countries in which the authorities provide export permits that should not be issued

  13. Dr.J.Pranay Rao


    June 11th, 2008 at 5:19 pm

    We are monitoring 35 active nest sites of Bonelli’s Eagles in the state of Andhra Pradesh,India. Our objectives are to gather data on the choice of nesting sites, nest site density, the breeding success and the diet of these eagles.

    Our data shows that the most common choice of nest site is rocky outcrop, followed by tree and High Tension Electricity Transmission tower. Rocky outcrops with active nest sites are under threat from stone quarrying, both legal and illegal. Many of the tree nests under our observation have been cut down illegally, either for timber or fuel wood purposes or for Bio-Diesel plantations. Nests on transmission are being destroyed indiscriminately by electricity utilities.

    We do not have any information on the state of non-breeding adults, juveniles and sub-adults, but the state of breeding pairs in Andhra Pradesh is not good. Constant threat to the nest sites is negatively effecting their breeding success and the breeding population is on the decline. Globally the Bonelli’s Eagle may be under ‘Least Concern’, but in our region their breeding population is on the decrease. The status of the breeding population of Bonelli’s Eagles in Andhra Pradesh is ‘Vulnerable’ and if appropriate measures are not taken, the breeding population will be ‘Threatened’.

    We are in the process of convincing the local electricity utility in Andhra Pradesh not to destroy nests on towers. We have already completed a state wide awareness program to the utility field staff, and the response is very positive.

    Overall, the lack of proper Law Enforcement by the Forest Department in Andhra Pradesh is the crux of the problem.

    Hope this is useful.

    Best regards,
    Dr.J.Pranay Rao,
    General Secretary, Raptor Conservation Foundation,
    1-10-63/4, Chikoti Gardens, Begumpet,
    Hyderabad-500 016,
    Andhra Pradesh , India .
    Ph: (9140) 2776 0072/2776 4074
    Email: raptorconserve@yahoo.com

  14. Administrator


    June 16th, 2008 at 10:05 am

    So, Dr. Rao, what are the legal protections given to raptors? And, is the Forestry Department the sole agency responsible for enforcement?

  15. Dr.J.Pranay Rao


    June 23rd, 2008 at 1:03 pm

    All raptors are protected under the Wild Life (Protection) Act, 1972. Under this Act, all Wild Life species are specified in Schedules I,II,III,IV,V & VI. Raptors are specified in Schedules I to IV. It is a criminal offence (punishable with imprisonment and fine) to hunt raptors. Hunting includes, killing raptors or disturbing or damaging eggs or nests of raptors.

    Some relevant provisions of this Act are as follows:

    Section 2. Definitions:

    (1) “animal” includes mammals, birds, reptiles, amphibians, fish, other chordates and invertebrates and also includes the young and eggs;

    (16) “hunting” with its grammatical variations and cognate expressions includes
    (a) killing or poisoning of any wild animal or captive animal and every attempt to do so;
    (b) capturing, coursing, snaring, trapping, driving or baiting any wild or captive animal and every attempt to do so;
    (c) injuring or destroying or taking any part of the body of any such animal or, in the case of wild birds or reptiles, damaging the eggs of such birds or reptiles, or disturbing the eggs or nests of such birds or reptiles;

    (36) “wild animal” means any animal specified in Schedules I to IV and found wild in nature;

    Section 9. Prohibition of hunting

    No person shall hunt any wild animal specified in Schedules I, II, III and IV except as provided under Section 11 and Section 12.

    Section 51. Penalties

    (1)Any person who contravenes any provision of this Act (except Chapter V-A and Section - 38J) or any Rule or Order made there under or who commits a breach of any of the conditions of any license or permit granted under this Act, shall be guilty of an offence against this Act, and shall, on conviction, be punishable with imprisonment for a term which may extend to three years or with fine which may extend to Twenty Five Thousand Rupees or with both.

    Provided that where the offence committed in relation to any animal specified in Schedule I or Part II of Schedule II or meat of any such animal or animal article, trophy or uncured trophy derived from such animal or where the offence relates to hunting in a Sanctuary or a National Park or altering the boundaries of a Sanctuary or National Park, such offence shall be punishable with imprisonment for a term which shall not be less than three years but may extend to seven years and also with fine which shall not be less than Ten Thousand Rupees.

    Provided further that in the case of a second or subsequent offence of the nature mentioned in the sub-section, the term of the imprisonment shall not be less than three years but may extend to seven years and also with fine which shall not be less than Twenty Five Thousand Rupees.

    The Ministry of Environment and Forests, Government of India and the Chief Wild Life Wardens (Forest Departments) of each state are responsible for the implementation of the Wild Life (Protection)Act, 1972.

    Best regards,
    Dr.J.Pranay Rao,
    General Secretary, Raptor Conservation Foundation,
    1-10-63/4, Chikoti Gardens, Begumpet,
    Hyderabad-500 016,
    Andhra Pradesh , India .
    Ph: (9140) 2776 0072/2776 4074
    Email: raptorconserve@yahoo.com

  16. Administrator


    June 24th, 2008 at 12:48 pm

    Thanks, Dr Rao. It appears this is national legislation, correct? Do Indian states have some autonomy in conservation law?

  17. Dr.J.Pranay Rao


    June 27th, 2008 at 9:07 am

    Yes,the Wild Life (Protection)Act,1972 is a national legislation. While most of the major conservation laws are national legislations, the states can pass their own legislations.

    Legislations on Environment, Forests, and Wildlife can be view in the following link: http://envfor.nic.in/legis/legis.html

    Best regards,
    Dr.J.Pranay Rao,
    General Secretary, Raptor Conservation Foundation,
    1-10-63/4, Chikoti Gardens, Begumpet,
    Hyderabad-500 016,
    Andhra Pradesh , India .
    Ph: (9140) 2776 0072/2776 4074
    Email: raptorconserve@yahoo.com

Leave a Reply